The European Monetary Union (EMU) - The Euro as a Single Currency Essay

The European Monetary Union (EMU) - The Euro as a Single Currency Liberalizing trade is nothing new to the world, but we have never witnessed such a vast economic integration between sovereign countries like the integration carried out in the European Union. Customs duties between European countries started to come down steadily in the early 1950s and were abolished in 1968 with the introduction of a customs union and the implementation of the common external tariff. The official proclamation of the single market on 1 January 1993 marked the ending of non-tariff barriers to trade between Member States. European Monetary Union will make it possible to complete European economic integration. The introduction of a single currency will mean price transparency, that is prices of goods can be directly compared on the markets of the participating Member States, which will merge into one market. Obstacles to trade such as the transaction costs, which add up to 0.4% of the EU GDP per year, and the exchange risk, will be eliminated. The competitive positions of companies can no longer be established by exchange-rate movements but will reflect productivity, inflation and cost differentials. This should permit a better allocation of capital and of available resources. The member countries will also be able to save administrative costs used for hedging operations. Over and above its positive effects on price stability and public finances, the single currency will make it possible to complete the single market and increase the benefits, which have already flowed from it. Monetary Union will create an area within which national financial markets will become an integrated, wider and more flexible market. Financial institutions and financial centers will face new competitive conditions. The size of a specific national market will lose its significance. Competition will increase and could lead to greater harmonization across the euro area. The introduction of the euro will have a great impact on the financial sector. This is because of three main reasons: Â · The European System of Central Banks will be operating the single monetary policy in euro. So, it will be necessary for financial institutions to be able to operate in euro. Â · Governments will issue all new debt in euro. Therefore, financial institutions, payment systems and clearing ... ...ch the problems associated with the changeover to the euro will be resolved. Second, the national currencies of the EMU members are no longer independent. They are fixed to the euro. A speculation between currencies of the member states is pointless because this is equal to speculation with a currency of the same type. The introduction of the euro in 1999 was an event, anticipated for a long time. Following, the euro has faced some problems due to the transaction period, but there is a strong belief that these problems will be easily overcome as the young currency accumulates power. Now that, the euro has become the official currency of the European Union (with some exceptions) there will be no more national currencies of the member states. In this way, we become witnesses of the highest level of integration among independent nations in the world history, when the European Union is expected to become the leader in the world economy. Bibliography: 1. Kreinin, International Economics, 1991, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 2. Cecchini, The European Challenge, 1992, Wildwood House 3. European Central Bank’s web site: http://www.ecb.int 4. EMU official web site: http://www.emu.int

Postives and Negatives of Mobile Phones Essay

â€Å"Investigate how the purchase of one electrical item may have a positive or a negative impact on people†. I will be reporting on the positives and negatives of mobile phones. I will investigate how they can be sustainable as well as how they are not sustainable for the future. I will discuss various negative as well as positive issues like the health information regarding mobile phones. How mobile phones has helped the growth of various countries. Also how mobile phones are impacting child labour and human rights. Other issues like riots and Arab springs will also be reported on in great detail. I will research the mobile company. I did primary research to find out which phone everybody has. This graph clearly indicates that most people I researched have Nokia. Nokia in 1967, well it would have been difficult to predict how successful Nokia was going to become as they started off selling common products like wellington boots. There H. Q is located in Finland. The research and development of Nokia is located in Finland, Spain, and china, Denmark, Germany and England. The production of Nokia is located in UK, India, Brazil, Mexico, and china, Finland, Romania and Hungary. I will also examine the issue around how Colton is causing a bad effect on countries like Congo. I will seek different people’s views for an unbiased study into this investigation. The mobile phone subscription has increased from 2002 and 2007 in every part of the world. Europe had the biggest increase in mobile phone subscriptions as it’s increased from 51,000 inhabitants to 111,000 inhabitants. This is because Europe is the richest continent in the world so it can afford for people to buy one or multiple phones to their likings. Asia has the biggest increase in developing continents. Africa is the fastest-growing mobile market in the world. The GSM Association report on Africa says: It expects there will be more than 735 million subscribers by the end of 2012. Analysts say that there is high usage of mobile phones since the landline is bad and expensive. †Now almost every adult, child and domestic pet seems to have one, given that 30 million phones are sold every year in UK†. Everyone seems to have a mobile phone. â€Å"More than a billion mobile phone connections have been added to the global tally in just 18 months, according to wireless intelligence†. Read more:  Mobile Phone Essay Introduction â€Å"More than 10 billion phones have been sold worldwide since 1994†. This indicates how the usage of mobile phones has increased. This device has become part of the fabric of society, whether a teenage girl taking a blackberry to bed with her, or a farmer in a African village trying to find out the latest crop prices†. Mobile phones have become a part of society all around the world. With 5 billion phones there are more mobile phones used then personal computers. â€Å"Five billion phones means there are more than three times as many phones than personal computers. It is said to believe that the market for mobile phones is likely to explode in the future. There are more people using a mobile phone than ever as over 70% of the world is mobile users. This is because the ever decreasing value of old phones means that mobile phones will be more affordable. In addition in this modern generation it’s socially considered rare to not have a phone. So from that social peer pressure everyone nowadays has a phone. 92% of the mobile phones users can’t get through a day without using their phones. This means most people use their phones every day and they are playing a important role in their life’s. 14% of the people have 2 or more mobile phones meaning they use multiple mobiles for multiple uses, For example one cheap phone for just calling abroad and one for luxury uses like entertainment. On average people in Britain make 2. 8 calls a day and 3. 6 text messages a day. 85% of children worldwide own a phone but only 30% of children have access to a book. This just shows how kids these days have own a phone rather than a book meaning more people have a phone rather than the tools needed for learning. â€Å"Leapfrogging† is the concept that areas which have poorly-developed technology or economic bases can move themselves forward swiftly through the adoption of new systems without going through intermediary steps.. More recently idea of leapfrogging is being used in the situation of sustainable development for developing countries as a theory of development which may hurry development by skipping less efficient, more expensive or more polluting technologies and industries and move directly to more advanced ones. We watch this happening all around us: you don’t need a 20th century industrial base to build a 21st century bio/Nano/information economy. An example of leapfrogging is the adoption of mobile phones in the developing world. It’s easier and quicker to put in cellular towers in rural and distant areas than to put in land lines, and as an outcome, cellular use is exploding. As we know, mobile phone use already exceeds land line use in India, and by 2007, 150 million phone lines there will be cellular. There are alike examples from all over the world. Positives There are many positives for mobile phones. First one being that communication is now easier. More mobile phones for people meaning getting in touch with people are much easier than before. The independent by Diane Coyle said in an article for â€Å"how the mobile phone has given hope to a new generation of African people†. She starts off by saying â€Å"Imagine your husband works away from home with little chance to visit you†. This is benefit for people who use mobile phones. It’s easier for the husband to stay in contact with the wife when they don’t get to see each other as often. This is good for anyone as they can keep connected to their families abroad. This is socially sustainable as people can be attached to their families with more ease. This is advantage for a mobile phone is really interesting as a report by the BBC (http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/technology-14465546) say that mobile phones could help police investigation against rioters. The riots in the summer in the UK is said to be coordinate via friends using a mobile phone. However BBC reports that â€Å"Investigators can apply to see the contents of text and instant messages, as well as their location†. This indicates that mobile phones are helping police to inspect criminal activity. The police can help keep the country safe by gathering criminals with the help of mobile phones. This is socially sustainable as mobile phones are helping keep the society safe. Mobile phones help businesses as they can distribute mobiles to their employees which can be used for sending emails or conference calls. This helps the business connect well with its employees. This is socially sustainable as the employees are associated to the business at all times. Apps can be purchased for gaming, maps or utilities. This usually done over the mobile internet however in most Asian countries like India the GPRS is not strong meaning very slow. So people come to shops like â€Å"Mobiworld† to buy apps offline. This is great for customers wanting apps downloaded without the use of the internet. Also this is creating an employment for the people in India selling apps offline. More people have access to mobiles than to a landline in Africa as fixed telephone lines are expensive whereas mobiles are cheaper. Mobiles are cheaper because the infrastructure is less expensive as you don’t have to build line for the telephone. This was also quoted in the same article. This is good for mobile users in LEDCs as they can have a cheaper way of communication as they don’t need to build the rather expensive infrastructure for the telephone line. This is economically sustainable as mobile phones are cheaper than fixed line phones. In the same article, mobile phones gave another form of employment. â€Å"In Kwa Phake in South Africa; a hairdresser had set up a sideline renting out access to a car battery†. This is good as it gives the workers in South Africa another form of income. This indicates how mobile phones are helping people to gain work and employment. This is good for the workers of South Africa as they can gain extra cash on top of their normal work to provide shelter and food for the families of these people in South Africa. This is economically sustainable as there’s another form of employment in the country for them to make money on. Another positive, I found out from the article was that mobile costs are cheaper than bus fares. In the article respondents to the surveyed and compared the call costs and cost in money and time of a round-trip bus journey into town. This is good as it means mobile phones are easier as well as cheaper to buyer. This is good for people in LEDCs who have low amounts of wealth as they can buy a mobile phone. There are newsagents and little shops in markets selling pre-paid phone cards. This is another source of employment that mobile phone brings for people. These pre-paid cards are sold all over the country providing work in LEDCs and MEDCS. This is economically sustainable as mobile phones are providing work for people. Nokia, one of the leading mobile companies selling mobile phones are trying to make mobile phones as sustainable for the future. †In 2007 we first introduced renewable materials with the Nokia 3110 Evolve, with 50% of its cover made from bio plastics†. This is good as this means the materials used are better for the environment. 0% more bio plastic meaning it’s environmentally friendly as the Bio plastics made from natural materials such as corn starch. This is good for nokia’s reputation as a eco-friendly mobile company. Also it helps the planet as the mobile phones will be more bio-degradable. This in addition also helping us buy phones which have materials which are good for the environment. This positive is environmentally positive as it’s as the materials are better for the world. Bio plastics can be recycled meaning 50% of the materials can be recycled. 100% of the materials in Nokia devices can be used again and again to make new products or generate energy†. Nokia is using materials that can be used again for new products or for energy. This is good as when a Nokia is recycled; nothing is wasted but in fact used for other products or to generate energy. This is environmentally friendly for the planet. Also the users of Nokia are in peace knowing there phone is going to be used in a eco-friendly way at the end of its product life. This is environmentally sustainable as using recycled materials is good for the environment. There are companies like envirofone. They recycle your old phones and give you the value of your old phone. This is good for the mobile users as they can recycle and gain money which could go to their possible next phone. Also it’s good for Envirofone as they can sell the materials that can be reused for other products. Overall it’s good for the environment as the mobile phones are recycled meaning this is environmentally sustainable. I did primary research in what people do with their old phones and the research Cleary shows that over half the people use mobile recycling websites like envirofone. Arab springs have helped people realise the important and how powerful mobile phones can be. â€Å"It is also true that mobile phones represented the main tool that provided protesters with the opportunity to spread their voices and share their values with the entire world. † The people of Egypt were able to share what they thought and share to the world. This was because they wanted a change in dictatorship. They shared images and video with the help of the function of a camera. â€Å"Not only were the millions of camera phones recording†. People would share these images on phone rapidly with the help of social networking site apps on phones. This has helped people in Egypt to use mobile phones to gain freedom and to get their point across to the world. Mobile phones can be seen as the main device that gave liberty and justice to international information. This is politically sustainable as mobile phones are helping countries gain political freedom. I found information on this issue by using this link: http://credemus. org/images/stories/reports/mobile-phones-and-the-arab-spring. pdf. Negatives There are numerous negatives for mobile phones. They cause car accidents when drivers are not paying attention on the road but on their phone. An article stated â€Å"Drivers distracted by talking or texting on cell phones killed an estimated 16,000 people from 2001 to 2007†. This affects car owners, their families and other people travelling on the road. This is socially unsustainable as drivers are putting not only there life’s in danger but the other people on the roads. Riots are another disadvantage to mobile phones. People are creating crime with the help of the mobile phone. This is socially unsustainable for the community as people may fear to go outside in case a riot occurs. This is also economically unsustainable as the council would have to pay for the damages caused by the riots. I did primary research on when people got their first phone. This graph clearly shows us that most people get Their phones early. As mobile phones are very cheap to buy, it’s affordable for the youth to have mobile phones. Although this has meant increase in bullying via the mobile phone. This affects children, teens and parents. This is socially unsustainable for the society of the youth. In addition to most children having mobile phones, they are forgetting to spell words correctly as the English is abbreviated. This is socially unsustainable as when the children are doing school work or exams they use abbreviations! Mr Shortis, a former chief examiner for English language A-level at the exam board AQAB, said he had rarely seen textisms used in A-level papers. But examiners had seen them crop up at GCSE. He said: â€Å"Between 11 and 16, children often change their language to express their social difference or identity. Using text message abbreviations in exam answers is the verbal equivalent of wearing a hoodie. http://www. tes. co. uk/article. aspx? storycode=2341958) This is also economically unsustainable as bad English could worsen his future prospects for a good job. There have been many studies done to find correlation between mobile phone and health. Even though there are no evidence of harm linked with using mobile phones. There has been many speculation to their being harm from mobile phone. â€Å"The World Health Organization’s cancer research agency says mobile phones are â€Å"possibly carcinogenic†. † (This quote taken from BBC report on â€Å"Mobiles ‘may cause brain cancer’†) this affects all mobile users around the globe. This is socially unsustainable as it’s a possibility that mobile phones may cause some kind of harm like brain tumour. No proof that mobile phones are harmful. â€Å"Sir William said children under eight should not use mobile phones at all†. (http://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/health/4163003. stm)In) my primary research 5-10 is the age group that bought their phones first. This affects children as they are at more risk than adults as perceived by the article. Latest mobile phones are very expensive. This economically unsustainable as most people won’t be able to afford it. This affects all mobile users and latest mobile prices are ever rising. Although more people buy contract so they don’t have pay all of the money at once. However this could lead to debt when people go overboard on minutes, texts or internet usage. This impacts all mobile users with contract. This primary research shows more people use the plan contract. This could lead to a spiraling debt due to increase pay monthly contract subscriptions. Old phones are very expensive to recycle as the high toxicity of electronic waste makes its safe disposal expensive especially in countries with strict environmental regulations. This is economically unsustainable for the world as it probably costs more to recycle than to actually make the phone. So it is sent to LEDCs for example China, They sort out the good parts that can be recycled or reused. The environmental regulations in China are not strict meaning that workers do labour without any health and safety restrictions meaning all the toxic chemicals from the phone damages the health of the Chinese workers. This is environmentally unsustainable as E-waste is gathered which releases harmful toxins which pollutes the world with harmful chemicals as there are weak environmental regulations.

Salem Witch Trials - 1692 Words

The Salem Witch Trials I: Introduction Attention Getter: During the Salem Witch Trials, about 200 people would be accused of Witchcraft, 19 would be executed as witches, and one man is his 80s would be put to death by stacking stone upon stone on his chest. General Purpose: To educate my audience about the Salem Witch Trials. Specific Purpose: My purpose is to display to you the power of fear in a place like Salem, or any place when they have the â€Å"witch hunt mentality.† Thesis Statement: The witch trials was a product of great fear, the want to stomp out evil, along with a story that will live on forever. Establish Credibility: I may not be an expert, however I have learned lots of the history that was the Salem†¦show more content†¦At the end of 1691 they began to act strange. Sarah Good received a warrant, along with Sarah Osborne. Quite a few more accusers came from the shadows all claiming to be suffering from the acts of Witchcraft. Doctors were brought to the possessed and it wa s confirmed that they were at an evil hand. Tituba was a slave brought from Barbados by minister Parris. She was told to make a â€Å"witch cake.† It had particular ingredients like rye meal and the urine of the possessed girls, after words it was to be given to a dog to â€Å"uncover a witch.† However, it did not do much good. The girls started having painful fits which ended up placing Tituba in the court house with Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne. Transition sentence: Next, the fear in the town was growing bringing all the towns people together to examine the supposed witches. Main Point 3: How the fear grew to something that could not be contained. Lewis Carol who wrote Alice in wonderland stated, â€Å"Sentence first-Verdict later.† In the trials it was quite similar. Rapley writes that, â€Å"If you were accused, then you were guilty.† Sarah Osborne was not a very liked person, she had a poor reputation and was elderly. In a village like this, she was not a church goer making her a prime target to be suspected of a Witch. She claimed to be innocent, denying every claim. Sarah Good also had a badShow MoreRelatedSalem Witch Trials And The Witch Trial1494 Words   |  6 PagesFirst of all, I wanted to talk about what Salem Witch Trial is and who are the persons involve in this event. Salem Witch Trials, according to Encyclopedia Britannica is â€Å"A series of investigations and persecutions that caused 19 c onvicted â€Å"witches† to be hanged and many other many suspects to be imprisoned in Salem Village in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.† There are many people involve in Salem Witch Trials and I’ll be going to describe their role in this event, followed by the different case studiesRead MoreSalem Witch Trials And The Witch Trial Essay2225 Words   |  9 Pagesaccused of witchcraft in Salem Village, Massachusetts, many more died in jail, and around 200 people total were accused of witchcraft during the Salem Witch Trials. Records from the event indicate that the Salem Witch Trials started when a group of young girls began acting strange, claiming they had been possessed by the Devil and bewitched by local villagers. The Salem Witch Trials is a much debated event; historians argue over the motivation and causes behind the trials and executions, not overRead MoreThe Trial Of The Salem Witch Trials905 Words   |  4 PagesI. Introduction In January 1692, when a group of juvenile girls began to display bizarre behavior, the tight-knit Puritan community of Salem, Massachusetts couldn’t explain the unusual afflictions and came to a conclusion. Witches had invaded Salem. This was the beginning of a period of mass hysteria known as The Salem Witch Trials. Hundreds of people were falsely accused of witchcraft and many paid the ultimate price of death. Nineteen people were hung, one was pressed to death, and as many asRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials691 Words   |  3 Pageswere the Salem Witch Trials? The Trials happened in 1692 in Puritan Massachusetts, in a town called Salem. Nineteen men and women were hanged on grounds of practicing dark magic and making a pact with Satan (in other words, for being witches). Hundreds of people were imprisoned; several died there. Additionally, one man (of over seventy years!) was crushed to death with heavy stones and the lives of many were irrevocably changed. (Salem Witch Museum) IQ #2- How and why did the Salem WitchRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials1202 Words   |  5 PagesThe Salem Witch Trials were a prime part of American history during the early 17th century. During this time, religion was the prime focus and way of life within colonies. This was especially true for the Puritan way of life. Puritans first came to America in hopes of practicing Christianity their own way, to the purest form. The Puritans were fundamentalists who believed every word transcribed in the Bible by God was to be followed exactly for what it was. The idea of the devil controlling a womanRead MoreThe Trials Of The Salem Witch Trials1866 Words   |  8 Pagessurrounding the cause of the Salem Witch Trials 1692 makes the topic captivating as many historian perspectives offer explanations for the causation of the trials, yet the personal context of each historian has determined its historic reliability. This questions the level of objectivity each historian has in their responses to the Trials. The aims and purposes of a historian, as well as their differing methodologies may alter the approach the have towards the investigation of the Trials. Many interpretationsRead MoreThe Trials Of Salem Witch Trials Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesThe notorious witch trials in Salem began in Spring of 1692. This started after a young group of girls in Salem Village, Massachusetts, professed they were possessed by the devil. These young girls even went as far as accusing some local women of practicing witchcraft. As a frenzy spreaded throughout colonial Massachusetts, a specific court was summoned to hear cases. Bridget Bishop was the first convicted witch and she was hung in that June following her trial. Eighteen other people followed BishopRead MoreThe Trials Of Salem Witch Trials1069 Words   |  5 PagesEven though the Salem witch trials were made to seem formal, they were actually subjective and not based on fact. Since there were multiple people being accused of witchcraft, the trials were short and quick to sentence. The witch trials lasted less than a year. The first arrests were made on March 1, 1692, and the final hanging day was September 22, 1692. The Court of Oyer and Terminer was dissolved in October of 1692. The Salem Witch Trials occurred in the spring of 1692, when a groupRead MoreThe Trials Of The Salem Witch Trials1635 Words   |  7 Pagesovercome was the Salem Witch Trials. The Salem Witch Trials occurred in 1692 and 1693 in colonial Massachusetts. â€Å"More than 200 people were accused of practicing witchcraft – the Devil’s magic – and 20 were executed† as detailed by Jess Blumberg on the web article A Brief History of the Salem Witch Trials (Blumberg 2007). The trials had a major impact on the American society and the effects could be seen in colonial America as well as today. Why did the injustice of the Salam Witch Trials occur and whyRead MoreThe Trials Of The Salem Witch Trials2197 Words   |  9 Pagesestablish colonies based on the word of God. Salem, like many other towns at the time, had little distinction between church and state and focused all aspects of their society on God. (Roach) Due to these conditions, Salem became the site of the largest and most violent witch hunts in America. The significance of the trials comes from the large impact they had on American law. The conditions before, during, and after the Salem Trials were unlike the witch hunts in any other colonies in the New World

Situational factors on consumers - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 30 Words: 8859 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Investigation of the effects of situational factors on consumers buying products with superstitious association 1.0 Introduction Research questions: (1) Are Chinese consumers always more likely to purchase products with lucky associations? If not, under what circumstances do Chinese consumers show higher willingness to buy such products and the underlying process. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Situational factors on consumers" essay for you Create order (2) Can the attributes of all kinds of products can be linked with lucky associations? If not, what kinds of products can be taken into account when marketers want to link their original attribuite with superstitious associations? (3) Do consumers show the same perception towards different attributes with superstitious associations? If not, which attribute is more suitable to be linked with superstitious association. (4) Are attributes with lucky associations of certain products the more the better? If not, how many attributes are considered suitable to be linked with superstitious associations? (5) Do consumers want to pay premium for certain product of which the attributes with lucky associations? If yes, do different types of consumers want to pay the same premium to certain lucky attribute? (6) What is the long-term attitude of consumers towards the products with superstitious-related attributes? 2.0 Literature review 2.1 What is superstition? 2.1.1 The concept of superstition Superstitions are beliefs that run counter to rational thought or are inconsistent with known laws of nature (Vyse, 1997). Superstition is a belief, or set of belief, that specific actions can directly influence the occurrence of desirable outcomes or the avoidance of undesirable outcomes when, in fact, the actions are not causally related to the outcomes (Carlson, Mowen, Fang, 2009, p. 691). Superstitions are attitudes individually held by people which related their existence to a general order of the cosmos, but which are not based on empirical evidence nor incorporated within the institutionalized belief systems of a society, as defined by leading representatives of these systems at any given time (Jarvis, 1980, p. 295). Superstition is (1) fundamentally irrational; (2) popularly accepted; (3) usually influences the behavior of the holder; (4) may be a belief in supernatural phenomena in the conventional sense; (5) has no sound evidence of personal experience to support it; and (6) may have arisen spontaneously and spread without ever having had the sanction of authority (Levitt, 1952). Ono (1987) define superstitious behavior as behavior produced by response-independent schedules of reinforcer delivery, in which only an accidental relation exists between responses and delivery of reinforcers. J. Rudski (2001) believe that in operant behavior, an instrumental response is strengthened when it is followed by a desired consequence. Occasionally, the desired outcomes occur independently of actual responding, yet people still attribute a causal relationship between the two. Such an attribution can be called a superstitious belief. 2.1.2 The typology of superstition Magic thinking is a belief that (a) transfer of energy or information between physical systems may take place solely because of their similarity or contiguity in time and space, or (b) that ones thoughts, words, or actions can achieve specific physical effects in a manner not governed by the principles of ordinary transmission of energy or information (Zusne Jones, 1989, p. 13) Superstitions are rooted in magic thinking (Jahoda, 1969; Keinan, 1994, 2002; Zusne Jones, 1989) 2.2 Superstition in marketplace Recent years witness the fast development of research of superstition in marketplace. There are two research lines in this field: first line is to explore the antecedents and consequences of superstition using modeling; the other line is to know consumers attitude towards superstition in marketing and how superstition influence consumers decision making. 2.2.1 The model of superstition in consumer behavior context Mowen and Carlson are the advocators of the first line. In Mowen Carlson (2003), they employed a hierarchical model of personality to investigate a number of possible trait antecedents and consumer-behavior-related consequences of superstition. One of the interesting findings is that the antecedents of superstition include a lower need for learning among older adults, higher levels of sports interest, a belief in fate, and a decreased belief in heaven and hell. In addition, the results suggest that the consequences of superstition might include beliefs in astrology, magic, psychokinesis, and the existence of fictitious creatures. Evidence suggesting a negative association between superstitious beliefs and attitudes concerning the genetic engineering of food products is also obtained. Based on this research, Carlson, Mowen, Fang (2009) further demonstrate the relationship between trait superstition and consumer behavior. A new measure of trait superstition is developed and a nomolog ical net of its consequences and antecedents identified: they found that trait superstition influence traditional superstitious behaviors such as keeping good luck charms and forwarding emails; they also found that trait superstition influence consumer activities in which outcomes are uncertain and are likely to be influenced by chance. These activities includesport fanship, gambling interest, stock market involvment and promotional games; moreover, trait superstition is predictive of a wide variety of consumer beliefs such as belief in astrology and in common negative superstitions (i.e. fearing black cat) this research reveal a set of antecedents of trait superstition. This two papers lay the foundation of research about the relationship between superstition and consumers trait and the consequences. One criticsm of the model mentioned above is by Vaidyanathan, Aggarwal, Cha, Chun (2007). They mentioned that Mowen Carlson (2003)s model is narrow in that it does not provide an adequate explanation for a variety of superstitious behaviors that are not based on a lack of belief in science. In addition, this model fail to recognize the differences between superstition in modern society and traditional superstition and ignore instrumental-based and social-based superstition. Thus, Vaidyanathan, et al.(2007) proposed a new model named a need-satisfaction model of superstitious behavior that classifies the needs met by superstitious behavior into (1) function need, (2) psychological needs, and (3) social needs. More specifically, they mentioned that the operating principle underlying functional need satisfaction is the illusory of control; the operating principle underlying the psychological need satisfaction of superstitious behavior is counterfatual thinking; the operating principle underlying the social need satisfaction dimension of superstitious behavior is social learning. 2.2.2 The influence of superstition on consumer decision making The second research stream is about the effects of superstition on consumers decision making. Literature in this line at early stage mainly foscus on Chinese consumerssuperstitious-related perception to the specific number, color and letter. For example, Ang (1997) showed that Chinese consumers consistently regarded A and S to be lucky letters and F and Z to be unlucky letters. The lucky number is 8 while 4 is considered unlucky. Moreover, he also found that brand name with lucky letters and numbers are perceived more favorably than those with unlucky letters and numbers. The ramifications of a lucky brand name are wide ranging from perception that the brand is lucky, to being successful, and to having superior quality. Thus, in the absence of other information, Chinese consumers make inferences about product characteristics and success based on brand name. Several following papers, from different perspective verified Ang (1997)s demonstration. Bourassa Peng (1999) use hedonic price analysis to investigate whether house values are affected by lucky and unlucky numbers. Results show that lucky house numbers are capitalised into house values among Chinese households in Aucland, NZ. More precisely, houses with lucky numbers sold for an average 2.4 percent premium. Chau, Ma, Ho (2001) use Hong Kong data to verify this phenonmen again. They show that consumer are willing to pay a premium for a lucky property in Hong Kong. A lucky floor number such as 8, 18, 28 etc. has been shown to be a valuable attribute, although it does not bring about any observable tangible benefit for the tenants living in these units. They also mentioned that the demand for such attribute is very volatile: during property booms, the demand for such an attribute is high due to the superstition and show-off effects so during these period, consumers are more willing to pay a higher premium for lucky floor numbers; however, during a slump period, the demand for such an intangible attribute of a property declines quickly. Cai, Cai, Keasey (2007) analyse the impact of cultural factors on both price clustering and price resistance in Chinas stock market. The results show support the presence of cultural factors impacting on price clustering with the digit 8 showing a higher propensity for clustering and the digits 4 and 7 showing a lowing propensity in the A-share market, where stock is denominated in Renminbi and traded by mainland Chinese. The other paper is Simmons Schindler (2003). They showed that the superstitious meanings attached to certain digits in traditional Chinese culture correspond to the use of those digits in the endings of advertised prices. They found that the digit 8, associated with properity and good luck, to be overrepresented among the price endings used in Chinese advertising; digit 4, associated with death, to be underrepresented among price endings. Furthermore, both results are consistent across different price-ending measures and across three diverse communities of chinese society. The research mentioned above only reveal the superstitious-related phenomone, not detailed analysis the reasons why people show willingness to use superstition in decision making. Tsang (2004) filled this gap. He discussed the relationship between superstition and business decision-making in chinese business communities and showed that the reason why Chinese businessman want to use superstition to help make decision is that superstition helps people cope with uncertainty through providing an additional source of information and reducing uncertainty induced anxiety, which correspond to the informational and psychological aspects of uncertainty respectively. In his paper, he also mentioned that the condition of using superstition in decision making which is that the decision is very important or the situation is uncertain. This condition is the same as what psychological research about superstition points out. Next, two papers by Kramer and Block push the research of superstition in markeplaces into the frontline. These two papers, both using experimental methodologies, investigate superstitious symbols (such as digit 8 and color red in Chinese culture) do influence the purchasing attitude and behaviors of superstitious individuals. Specifically, in Kramer Block (2008), the authors pointed out that superstitious beliefs may be a source of information relied upon in evaluation and satisfaction judgements through an automatic process. More precisely, the superstitious associations that individuals hold concerning an objects attribute (e.g. color) will influence how well they believe the object itself should perform. The authors verify that following product failure, Chinese consumers will be less satisfied with a product for which they hold positive (vs. neutral) superstitious associations because Chinese consumers show higher performance expectations to the product with superstitious-relat ed attributes. In addition, this paper found the evidence of the role of nonconscious processing in the effect of superstition. In this research, the nonconscious component of superstition is greater than the conscious part. Block Kramer (2009) based on their last paper further propose that product attributes with superstitious associations influence performance expectations that in turn determine purchase likelihood and subsequent satisfaction after product failure. More precisely, consumers will be more likely to purchase a product with which they have positive superstitious associations as compared to a product with which they do not have any and the differences in purchase likelihood are driven by superstition-based performance expectations. In addition, they show that consumers will be less satisfaied with a product for which they hold positive (vs. neutral) superstitious associations following instances of both negative and positive expectation disconfirmation and expectation disconfirmation sensitivity is considered as a moderator of the impact of superstitious beliefs on product satisfaction. Therefore, incorporating superstitious elements into products can be viewed as a two-side sword because raising expectations with positive superstitious associations may initially induce purchase, but subsequently decrease repurchase rates or positive word-of-mouth as these high expectations are difficult to meet or exceed. 2.2.3 Research gaps In the research stream about the effects of superstition on consumers decision making, although extant literature (Block Kramer, 2009) has verifed the relationship between products with (and without) superstitious attributes and purchase likelihood, two research gaps are left to be filled: (1) From the vertical comparison of product with superstitious-related attributes, under what circumstances do superstitious consumers show higher willingness to buy products with superstitious-related attributes and the underlying process. (different products?) (2) From the horizontal comparison of products with and without lucky attributes, whether superstitious consumers always prefer the products with superstitious-related attributes to the products with nonsuperstitious-related attributes? personal traitproduct with superstitious-based attributes,state (Keinan, 1994, p. 52) Situational and environmental variables In order to answer the first question, I start from the psyclogical literature and find out when superstition happens and why it happens. Then, I will link the psychological research about superstition with superstitious consumers attitude towards product with lucky attributes. Regarding the second question, I will focus on one important factor that influence consumer decision making: information uncertainty towards a product. 2.3 Psychological research on superstition The pervasiveness of superstition in everyday life has long been a concern of psychologists, including researchers, educators, and clinicians (Zusne Jones, 1989) and recent years witness an increasing interest in the study of superstitious beliefs. The studies of superstitious beliefs are important since they can help inform or refine our understanding of the interconnections among imagination, cognition, personality, and culture and then how these associations may produce phenomena like cognitive illusions and delusional thinking (Huang Teng, 2009). Some findings have already been obtained. In answering what kinds of superstition and magic thinking exist, researchers have mentioned several superstitious behaviors such as carrying lucky charms (Wiseman Watt, 2004), knock on wood (Keinan, 2002), keep the fingers crossed (Damisch, 2008; Vyse, 1997), avoid walking under ladders (Pole, Berenson, Sass, Young, Blass, 1974). Furthermore, study have showed that people who seems to be esp ecially likely to exhibit superstition are gamblers (Joukhador, Blaszczynski, Maccallum, 2004), athletes (Bleak Frederick, 1998; Todd Brown, 2003) and students (Albas Albas, 1989; Felson Gmelch, 1979) because they all face situations in a performance context, which elicit pressure, psychological tension, and feeling of anxiety (Schippers Lange, 2006). There are two explanations why under such circumstances do people use superstition: first one is that stress undermines perceived control (Friedland, Keinan, Regev, 1992). As undermined perceptions of control have been associated with negative psychological and physical consequences (Abramson, Seligman, Teasdale, 1978), people, therefore, attempt to do something to regain perceptions of control and superstition is the very one people want to use (Keinan, 1994, 2002; Matute, 1995). Here, as people who engage in superstitious behavior are often aware that their behaviour is unreasonable or irrational but find it difficult to rid themselves of such behavior (George Gmelch Felson, 1980), the purpose of superstition is not a means to an end to control over the outcomes but to offer the comfort of feeling in control. In other words, superstition is considered a secondary control (Case, Fitness, Cairns, Stevenson, 2004). The second explanation is from the perspective of self-efficacy. It has been showed that by helping the individual overcome mental obstacles in performance-related situation, the implementation of a good luck superstition prior to a performance task leads to an increase in perceived self-efficacy towards the required activity, which in turn improves the final performance (Damisch, 2008). One up-to-date research, although does not mention self-efficacy directly, verified that a temporary change in perceptions of luck (an enhanced self-efficacy belief) is performed as a mediating variable between superstition and performance and lucky primes increase consumers risky preference (Jiang, Cho, Adav al, 2009). 2.3.1 Superstitious people Current literature has reported that several groups of people are more superstitious. These groups include: financial investors, gamblers, athletes, students. 2.3.1.1 Superstitious financial investors The former chairman of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange Leo Melamed in his autobiography mention that most traders, whether they admit it or not, are superstitious. Some have a lucky tie that they must wear every day, some use a lucky pencil, others drive to work down the same streets, and so on. (Melamed Tamarkin, 1996) Many Hong Kong tycoons will not go ahead with a building or a financial investment without seeking the advice of a Feng Shui consultant (Tsang, 2004). anecdote Kolb Rodriguez (1987) verified that superstition may play a role in the performance of the securities market. They investigated whether the mean return for Friday the Thirteenth is statistically different from the mean return for other Fridays. They used the sample periods between July 1 1962 and December 31 1985, which includes thirty-nine occurrences of Friday the Thirteenth and using t-test, found that mean returns for Friday the Thirteenth are lower than those of other Fridays. One follow-up study is Lepori (2009). He tested whether superstition-induced behavior affects investment decisions. Similar as Kolb Rodriguez he focused on a phenomenon that is typically interpreted as bad omens by the superstitious both in Asian and Western societies: beliefs associated with eclipses and employed a dataset containing 362 such events over the period 1928-2008. Using four broad indices of the US stock market, he uncovered strong evidence that the occurrence of negative superstitious event s (i.e. eclipses) is associated with below average stock returns, which is consistent with a diminished buying pressure coming from the superstition. He also extended his analysis to a sample of Asian countries and found analogous results. 2.3.1.2 Superstitious gamblers The outcome of most game of chance are random events, completely out of the players control (Vyse, 1997). However, most gamblers have their own way to exert their control over the outcome: engaging superstitious strategies. The concept of superstition in the context of gambling is defined as gestures whether verbal or non-verbal that are deployed and believed to effect the game when there is no empirical connection between that and the outcome (Henslin, 1967, p. 318) and it is one subset of an array of important cognitive distortions identified as contributing to the false belief that one can influence the outcome of a chance event (Toneatto, 1999). Superstition exists in most gambling activities and other games of chance (Joukhador, et al., 2004). One of the most revealing research is a study of craps players by Henslin (1967). Craps is a wagering pure-chance game played with dice and there is no skill involved in throwing dice. Henslin, nonetheless, found that the crap players employed a lot of strategies that they believed increased their chance to win. For example, players will touch the dice softly for wishing a low number and throw the dice hard to bring a high one. Also snapping ones fingers is c onsidered to be lucky. Just as Henslin mentioned the shooter will frequently point with his index finger close to the die, wait until the die has slowed down. Not only crap players employ superstition, later research also showed that bingo players use superstitious strategies such as feelings, hunches and psi, attitudes, and luck to neutralize their marginally deviant behaviors (King, 1990); players also perform superstitious way when playing slot machine: 38% of all their speech can be regarded as irrational and 80% of their strategic statements are irrational (Walker, 1992). Later a series of studies using experimental method to verify that gamblers indeed want to superstitiously control the outcome of the pure-chance game. Rothbart Snyder (1970) use a procedure in which subjects rolled a die and bet on the outcome, it was found that subjects predicting the outcome before the die was rolled bet more money and reported greater confidence in being correct that subjects postdicting the outcome after the die had already been rolled. The results were interpreted as support for the hypothesis that a form of magic thinking mediates the frequently reported positive relationship between subjects desire for a particular outcome and his estimate of that outcomes likelihood of occurrence. Wohl Enzle (2002) find that having choice in a game of chance heightened both perceived personal luck and perceived chance of winning. In the following experiment, hypothesis are tested based on the proposition that luck perceived as a personal quality follows the laws of sympathetic magic. The results show that the participants act as though luck could be transmitted from themselves to a wheel of fortune and thereby positively affect their perceived chance of winning. Wohl Enzle (2009) investigate how perceptions of other peoples luck are used in an attempt to maximize ones own outcomes. More specifically, it was hypothesized that people will defer to a lucky other in games of chance to maximize winning potential. In experiment 1, participants are told that they would receive a scratch-and win lottery ticket as a gratuity for participating. As hypothesized, participants are more likely to allow a confederate to either pick their lottery ticket if they perceived the confederate to be personally lucky than is such perceptions where not facilitated. In experiment 2 and 3, participants interacted with a confederate over the Internet. As predicted, participants are more likely to allow a gambling partner (a confederate) to spin a roulette wheel (experiment 2) and bet more money on the outcome of the spin (experiment 3) if they were made to believe their partner is lucky. 2.3.1.3 Superstitious athletes The popularity of sport combined with the fact that its participants are a traditionally superstitious group make athletes, particularly professional athletes, the most famous of all superstitious people (Vyse, 1997). There is long history in studying the superstitious behavior among athletes. Here one may concern whether the commonly used sport ritual is superstitious behavior. According to Womack (1992), he defined superstitious behavior in sport as actions that are repetitive, formal, sequential, distinct from technical performance, and that the athletes believe to be powerful in controlling luck or other external factors. Here, superstitious behavior focus on bring good luck. Sport rituals is also particular behaviour, however the purpose of ritual is to calm the individual and to provide a predictable routine that allows the person to perform as he or she has practiced and without distractions (Burger Lynn, 2005). Current literature has revealed that nearly all kinds of sports can be found that athletes perform both rituals and superstitious behaviors. For example, Gregory Petrie (1975) investigated superstitions among member of six selected Intercollegiate athletic teams and found that sport superstitions were identified with particular activities: (1) hocky – equipment, order and player position; (2) basketball – sinking the last warm-up shot; (3) volleyball – superstitions pertaining to food; (4) swimming – colour of suit; (5) track – clothing, lane numbers and superstitions related to shoes; and (6) tennis – weather and lucky balls. Several follow-up studies verified and supported the different superstitions across different kinds of sports. Bleak Frederick (1998) found that football rituals were centred around clothing and prayer; gymnasts focuses on team rituals and pregame food rituals; track athletes were the only group that mentioned lucky items of clothing or lucky marking on shoes. Gmelch (1992) showe d that American professional players develop and follow a daily routine which is believed to reduce chance and their feelings of uncertainty. These routines include eating the same food and listening to the same songs before the match. Also many players have fetishes or charms which they believe to embody supernatural power that can aid or protect them. These charms include a wide assortment of objects from coins, chains and crucifixes to a favourite baseball hat. Apart from the investigation of different superstitions in sports, researchers also revealed the timing of superstition happening in one particular sport. For example, Gmelch (1971) found that for baseball player, superstitions hardly occur in fielding where success is 97.5%. However when it comes to hitting and pitching, where the rate of success is only 0.245 and seems to depend on luck and other external circumstances, superstitious rituals are often exhibited. Similarly, Ciborowski (1997) reported a high rate of superstitious practices when games were close or when a team was about to lose, but not when a team was leading comfortably. uncertainty? 2.3.1.4 Superstitious students Researchers have showed that students employed superstitious strategies during the examination period. Albas Albas (1989) observed 300 students of University of Manitoba in a number of locations, on and off campus, and conducted many formal and informal interview over thirteen years and estimated that 20% to 33% students used magic, primarily to bring on good luck rather than to ward off bad luck. They divided the students exam-related superstitions into two broad categories: the use of lucky objects and the practices of special rituals. Regarding the lucky objects, they showed that some students used common amulets such as rabbits feet, dice and coins. The special rituals, they mentioned, were highly private and idiosyncratic. For example, they reported that one student knocked on exam door three times; one student played the song Money Changes Everything on the drive to school. One further study is by Gallagher Lewis (2001). They used US subjects and found that nearly 70% of students indicated some level of test-related superstitious practice. They also showed that superstitious practice among students was largely independent of religious belief and practice and of gender and race. Not only students in the context of western culture perform superstitious behavior, many students from eastern culture also employ superstitious strategies. Tsang (2004) reported that many Chinese TOELF candidates, who had applied for scholarships provided by US universities and were waiting for the scholarship offers, went to pray in the Temple of the Lying Buddha in Beijing, China. 2.3.1.5 The similarities of above superstitious groups When taking a look at the four groups of people who are particularly likely to perform superstition, we can find the similarities of them. Financial market, as mentioned by Lepori (2009), is highly uncertain and the risk is high (Vyse, 1997). Gamblers also face the uncertainty because gambling sometimes is pure chance-determined game and gamblers cannot control over the outcome. Students during examination time and athletes in a match also experience the same thing. According to Damisch (2008), exams and matches are important to students and athletes because they are in the performance context which exist both certainty and uncertainty. The uncertainty components include the difficulty of exams and the level of couterparts in the match. Meanwhile, the outcome of the performance is usually important because students may enter a good university and athletes may win the champion. Thus these characteristics may result pressure, physical tension and feeling axiety. Rationally speaking, pe ople can use the controllable forces to control the certainty and people cannot control the uncertainty things (Burger Lynn, 2005). However, people, when dealing with uncontrollable events or uncertainty, do not merely wait and see the outcomes happen passively, instead they perform some ways (for example superstition) so that they do something to try to influence the uncontrollable event. Taken together, regardless of financial investors, gamblers, athletes and students, they face uncertainty and the outcomes which are considered important to them. So far, I have summarized the similar characters of the superstitious groups and I believe it is these characters that make these groups resort to superstition. In the next paragraphs, I will find further support about whether these factors do influence the occurance of superstition, in other words, I will find out the situational variables for people to perform superstition. 2.3.2 Situational variables of superstition Last paragraph, we focus on participant variables that who is likely to engage superstitious behavior and summarize it is the situation or environment that make these groups of people prone to perform superstition. In this paragraph I will show the evidence to further support the idea that situational or environmental factors do influence peoples engaging superstitious behaviors. Indeed, prior literature has showed that people tend to endorse superstitious beliefs and to resort to superstitious strategies under conditions of uncertainty (Felson Gmelch, 1979; Malinowski, 1954) and the high importance of the outcome (J. M. Rudski Edwards, 2007; Schippers Lange, 2006). 2.3.1.1 Uncertainty Researchers from a variety of disciplines have argued that superstition often grows out of uncertainty. One of the first pieces of evidence for this notion comes from Malinowski (1954)s observations. He (Malinowski, 1972/1948, pp. 139-140) observe the life of Trobrianders and find magic wherever the elements of chance and accident, and the emotional play between hope and fear have a wide and extensive range. He does not find magic wherever the pursuit is certain, reliable, and well under the control of rational methods and technological processes. Further, he finds magic where the element of danger is conspicuous. This work opens the door for the following researchers to study when superstition happens. Some follow-up studies further verify Malinowskis theory. For example, Felson Gmelch (1979) argue that magic results from purely cognitive processes and represents an effort to produce favourable. In other words, people believe that unknown forces (good luck or bad luck) play a role in the outcome of events and that these forces can be manipulated by magic. They use survey to find that students reported using more magic in activities that are relatively uncertain (i.e. gambling) and less in activities that are relatively more certain (i.e. illness). Thus this study suggests that people use magic in situations of uncertainty, which support Malinowskis basic notion. 2.3.1.2 The importance of outcome The perceived importance of the outcome increased, irrational beliefs also increase. One possible explanation for this is that when the stakes are high, in some peoples eye, superstitious behavior will become more rational because from the perspective of expected-utility, the small inconvenience of the superstition is outweighed by the potential benefit (Vyse, 1997). This explanation is supported by the principle of Pascals Wager which demonstrate that even if there is only a small possible concerning the existence of heaven and hell, it might be the safest strategy to protect against the risk of damnation by living a Christian life. Therefore, high stakes (the outcome is important) will lead people to perform superstitious behavior in case it can be helpful. Researchers have also showed this causal relationship of the importance of outcome with the use of superstitious behavior in different context. For example, Biner, Angle, Park, Mellinger, Barber (1995) used experimental method to investigate whether need affect subjects level of confidence in winning a motive—relevant incentive in a chance-based card-drawing activity. Results show that compared to food-satiated (low need or low importance) subjects, food-deprived (high need or high importance) subjects were significantly more confident that they would win the hamburger in the pure-chance drawing. In their follow-up study, they used field study to show that higher ratings of personal skill in lottery among low-income participants (outcome is more important) than high-income participants (outcome is less important). In the context of sports, similar findings are also presented. For instance, Schippers Lange (2006),using experimental method, manipulated different type of match (final vs. training) as different importance of the outcome (high importance vs. low importance) and found that ritual commitment, which is defined as the extent to which subjects wish or need to engage in superstitious ritual in sport, is greater when importance of the game is high rather than low. In the context of students taking exam, Rudski Edwards (2007) use experiment to show the causal relationship between importance of outcome and degree of difficulty (easy, moderately comfortable, difficult), and students performing superstitious behaviors. Regarding measuring students superstitious behavior, they based on Bleak Frederick (1998)s survey consisted of 25 items describing common superstitions or rituals about college athletes. About the importance of outcome, they use the setting that the test represents 5%, 20% and 50% of the final exam grade. They found that the importance of the outcome most influenced superstitious rituals. (Damisch, 2008, p. 18) 2.3.2 Why superstitions happen? 2.3.2.1 Stress Stress and superstition Ellson (1942) found a large temporary increase in the percentage of books dealing with psychical research and spiritualism published between 1916 and 1920, which he attributed to the threat posed by the First World War. Sales (1973) believed that peoples interest in superstition is reflected in the popular media and examined the percentage of books and articles pertaining to astrology during threatening and nonthreatening periods and found that the percentage was significantly higher during stressful times. Padgett Jorgenson (1982) use multiple linear regression to demonstrate that economic threat predict the level of superstition in Germany for the tumultuous years 1918 to 1940. Indexes of superstition were the number of articles on astrology, mysticism, and cults appearing in a Germany periodical index. Threat was measured by levels of real wages, unemployment, and industrial production. The economic threat variables significantly predicted level of superstition in two of the three superstition indexs. McCann Stewin (1984) verified that the annual percentage of parapsychological contributions to the psychological literature is (a) correlated positively with the unemployment rate, (b) is correlated negatively with the disposable per capita income in constant dollars, and (c) is correlated positively with the subjective annual threat weightings of historians and social critics. Womack (1992) reported that athletes were more likely to resort to superstition or rituals under highly stressful situation. Keinan (1994) is the landmark to use experimental method to investigate the relationship between psychological stress and magic thinking and the extent to which such a relationship may be moderated by individuals tolerance of ambiguity using Israeli citizens during the Gulf War as the subjects. The results show that superstitious and magic beliefs are more prevalent among people living in regions exposed to missile attacks (high-stress condition) than among those living in regions not exposed to such attacks (low-stress condition). Furthermore, high stress level exerts a more pronounced effect on the occurrence of magical thinking in individuals with low tolerance of ambiguity than in those with high tolerance. Although this paper point out a bright way for future research about superstition in psychology, several research gaps are left to be filled: (1) this research only focus on magic thinking which means that no one knows whether people will use behavioural expressions to deal wi th stress; (2) this paper does not rule out other factors that can also link to magic thinking in the different areas. Keinan (2002) based on the former work further to solve the problems mentioned above. He designed a very clear experiment that half participants are exposed to low-stress conditions (a regular study day during which no examination were held) and half to high-stress conditions (about half an hour before an examination). They are interviewed and asked questions designed to elicit a superstition behavior: knocking on wood ritual. Results show that the difference in the number of knocks on wood between high Desire for Control (DC) and low-DC individuals was greater in the high-stress than in the low-stress condition. Uncertainty and stress Monat, Averill, Lazarus (1972) conducted two experiments to show the effects of uncertainty on anticipatory (3 minutes) stress reactions and cognitive coping reponses. Results show that temporal uncertainty subjects who know that a painful electric shock would occur, but not when, demonstrated maximum affetice disturbance (stress) in the anticipation period and thought less about the shock as time processed. Mishel (1984) proposed a structural model to explain the stress resulting from hospitalization for a medical problem. Results showed that perceived uncertainty about symptoms, treatment, and outcome was examined as a major predictor of stress. Testing of the model with hospitalized medical patients indicated support for the relationship of uncertainty to stress. Uncertainty also had the predicted mediating role between seriousness of illness and stress. Fleming, Okeeffe, Baum (1991) showed that resident living near hazardous waste site which elicit uncertainty about the future of their family performed more poorly on a task that has been shown to be affected by stress and had more difficulty concentrating and/ or motivating themselves to work on the task and experienced greater stress-related arousal of the sympathetic nervous system. Importance of outcome and stress Schuler (1980) Marchant, Morris, Anderson (1998) conducted experiment to investigate whether perceived importance have causal relationship with competitive strate anxiety. They manipulated perceived importance of outcome (low importance: three golf balls vs. high importance: golf shoes) and asked participants to complete the Sport Competition Anxiety Test. Results show the significant differences between the low-importance group and high-importance group on competitive state anxiety. Schippers Lange (2006) use experiment to verify that importance attached to the outcome in a given situation affect peoples tension. More specifically, when outcomes are not considered to be very important, individuals should feel more or less relaxed, the level of psychological tension is low. In contrast, when outcomes are considered to be very important, people experience greater psychological tension and stress. 2.3.2.2 Control The need for control and the aversiveness of perceived uncontrollability are major motivators of human behaviors and have long been identified as a basic motivation in the psychological literature (Averill, 1973; Lefcourt, 1973; White, 1959). Heightened perceptions of control have been associated with psychological and physical well-being (Taylor Brown, 1988) and exposure to uncontrollable situations has deleterious effects and have been associated with feelings of helplessness and other negative psychological and physical consequences (Abramson, et al., 1978). Thus when personal control is threatened or undermined, persons are driven to protect it or regain it (Liu Steele, 1986; Pittman Pittman, 1980). Superstitious strategies are the useful tools for people under low perceptions of control or even no control to regain such control. Stress and control Many psychological literatures have mentioned that experience of stress is strongly associated with perceived loss of control. Lacking control and superstition Some research has pointed out that a tendency towards magical thinking in situation in which control is reduced or lacking. The first study of superstition happening under lacking of control is Skinner (1948). Skinner records the behaviors of hungry pigeons when food is presented regularly and finds that even pigeons can perform superstitious behavior in uncontrollable reinforcement situations. More specifically, Skinner arranges a clock to present food every 15 seconds. After a few minutes, the pigeons start to perform distinctive rituals even though reinforcement is complete independent of the pigeons behavior. The distinctive rituals include that one bird is conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements; another bird repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage; a third bird develop a tossing response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Skinner (1948) demonstrates that the behavior of the pigeons is a sort of superstition because the bird behaves as if there is a causal relation betw een its behavior and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking. Some follow-up studies are conducted and verify Skinners theory from different angles. For example, Ono (1987) analyze the behavior of humans exposed to response-independent schedules of reinforcer delivery and find that idiosyncratic and stereotyped superstitious behavior is produced in human subjects by response-independent schedules. Matute (1994) use experiment to demonstrate that Yoked subjects tend to superstitious behavior and illusion of control during exposure to uncontrollable noise. This in turn prevents the development of learned helplessness because uncontrollability is not perceived. In the following experiment, the failure feedback manipulation is added to the Yoked condition. Results of this experiment replicate previous findings of a proactive interference effect in humans – often characterized as learned helplessness. This effect, however, does not support learned helplessness theory because failure feedback is needed for its development. It is argue that conditions of response-independent reinforcement commonly used in human research do not lead to learned helplessness, but to superstitious behavior and illusion of control. Matute (1995) based on his former research test the generality of superstition and illusion of control effects in humans exposed to uncontrollable noise under different task conditions, as well as two different conditions of percentage and distribution of negative reinforcement (noise termination). He find that most subjects exposed to non-contingent negative reinforcement tend to behave superstitiously, and to believe (a) that they had found a way to stop the noise, (b) that the task was controllable, and (c) that they were controlling it. Dudley (1999) support Matutes theory and argue that paranormal beliefs can allow one to make external and specific attributions by placing the blame for failure outside oneself, which may prevent the development of learned helplessness during specific instances of uncontrollability. He use experiment to verify his assumption that participants resort to superstitious belief in unsolvable situations, which may prevent or interrupt performance impairment and superstition may help block the development of learned helplessness. More specifically, he find that college students scoring higher on Tobacyks revised Paranormal Belief Scale (PBS) (J. Tobacyk Milford, 1983; J. J. Tobacyk, 2004) solve more anagrams after exposure to an unsolvable problem than did students who score lower on the PBS. The effectiveness of superstition As superstitious strategies are often used when control is lacking. Some early literatue maintained that the reason why people perform superstition is that they believe it is useful to control the outcome. For example, Killeen (1978) propose that in the attempt to solve a problem, an organism tend to repeat any behavior that may have produced the desire outcome. Later, Van Raalte, Brewer, Nemeroff, Linder (1991) demostrated that those students who believe that their own actions exert some control over chance events are most likely to exhibit superstitious behaviors. However, many psychological researchers argued that even people know clearly that their superstitious behaviors do not have any influence on the potential outcome, they still perform superstitious behaviors. Research that support this standpoint can be found in literatures which are in different contexts. For example, Bleak Frederick (1998) report that may athletes engage in superstitious rituals in spite of their self-reports indicating low levels of aggrement that such behaviors are effective in influencing sports performance which means that it is not necessarily effectiveness of a superstitious sport behavior which determines its popularity among members of a sport team. Rogers (1998), in the context of gambling, observed that Lotto players acknowleged that winning Lotto is based purely on probability but they still believed in hot and cold numbers and used of intuition influenced actual behaviors. Rudski Edwards (2007), in the context of students taking exam, also argue that a lthough many participants reported using charms or rituals, they often failed to grant much credence to their efficacy. In regard to this controversy, Campbell (1996) based on Garwood (1963)s work propsed the concept of modern superstition which he believed that modern practitioners of superstition are not prepared to declare that they believe that they have any control over the outcome. The reason why they engage superstition is that they want emotional reassurance which superstition brings. In addition, they pursue a state to be active rather than accept passivity where control is lacking; a need to protect a fundamental orientation to action which is internalized in their personality and characteristic of their culture. That is to say, people performing superstition want to obtain a feeling which make them comforatble. Current psychological literature, from the perspective of illusory control also support this viewpoint. Illusory control and superstition Langer (1975) is the first researcher to propose this concept. She demonstrated that people act as if they can control outcomes in situations that are purly chance. She proposed that chance situations with skill elements elicit illusions of control, exaggerations of the probability of success based on overestimations of personal control. Case, et al.(2004)s experiment also support this standpoint. They showed that belief in the efficacy of the psychics ability did not appear to drive use of the psychics choice and participants chose the psychic option only on those trials where failure was most salient, in other words, only under circumstance that participants cannot control the outcomes. Case, et al. (2004) investigate the use of superstitious strategies under conditions of low control. In their experiments, 78 participants complete a chance-determined card-guessing task in which they were permitted to use a psychics card selection instead of making their own card selections. Participants use of a superstitious strategy (a psychics selections) increased significantly with the perceived likelihood of failure, which suggests that participants cannot control the outcomes. question, I will start from the psychological literature and try to find that under what circumstance do people perform superstition because according to the Block and Kramer (2009; 2008)s work, the reason why consumers prefer products with superstitious-related attributes is that superstitious people mistakenly believe that positive superstitious-association attributes lead to higher product performance. It is to be noted that the product performance does nothing with the attributes no matter whether they are positive or negative superstitious-related. Thus, the phenomenon that consumers prefer products with positive superstitious-related attributes match with the concept of superstition that is a belief, or set of belief, that specific actions can directly influence the occurrence of desirable outcomes or the avoidance of undesirable outcomes when, in fact, the actions are not causally related to the outcomes (Carlson, et al., 2009, p. 691). Therefore, we propose that As superstition is the psychological topic originally, however, current literature about superstition in marketplace do not take consumer psychology of superstition into accout. In other words, there is lack of empirical research between the psychological research of superstition and research about superstition in consumer decision making context. It is likely to expect that for superstitiou sconsumers, their situation when using products could induce their evaluation towards products with superstitious-related attributes. 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Charles Dickens Great Expectations And Nicholas Nickleby

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